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Taoism or the School of Tao refers to a set of philosophical teachings and religious practices rooted in a specific metaphysical understanding of the Chinese character Tao. For Taoists, Tao could be described as the continuity principle behind the whole process of the constantly changing Universe.
Taoism has had a deep and long-lasting influence in many domains of Chinese culture, including philosophy, the arts, literature, medicine, and cuisine. It has spread widely throughout East Asia. Taoism emphasizes Freedom, Nature, Cosmology, Self-cultivation, and even the search for Immortality. Some accounts prefer to separate two Taoisms: one being mostly philosophical, metaphysical and aesthetical, the other focused on religious practices and encompassing Exorcism, Alchemy, and a wide set of popular beliefs. Often considered as the counterpart of mainstream Confucianism and challenged by Buddhism, Taoism is more accurately seen as an integral element of the vast and diverse Chinese experience.
The oldest Chinese scripture is said to be the I Ching, a compilation of readings based on sixty-four hexagrams. The hexagrams are combinations of eight trigrams or gua (collectively called bagua), resulting in sixty-four possible combinations. Laozi was intimately familiar with the I Ching, and his work, the Tao Te Ching, shows that he was profoundly inspired by it.
Readings of the I Ching are based on the hexagrams, i.e., six lines that are either Yin or Yang. Each hexagram has two trigrams that provide the imagery that the reading is based on. The trigrams are "changing transitional states," generated on the simple basis of the alternation of Yin-Yang polarity. This is recognized in the saying "A (stage of) Yin, a (stage of) Yang, is what is called Tao" (一阴一阳之谓道). Tao is the underlying principle on which the I Ching is built. The cycle of Yin and Yang depicts the complements of opposite forces or qualities: creative-receptive, sunny-shady, male-female, heaven-earth, the sum total of life: the universe.
During the Han Dynasty, the Taoist school of thought gained disciples and defenders. It enlarged its audience and founded many religious sects with hierarchies of divinities and ritual practices. Taoist ideas and sects have been spiritually challenged by Buddhism and socially denigrated by Confucianism. However, a typically Chinese form of syncretism has generally allowed differing belief systems to coexist within society, even within the same person. Beyond the debates and confrontations, Taoism has remained a highly influential stream of thought in East Asia, with Philosophy, Art, Poetry, Medicine, and Divination as its main domains.
In Chinese thought, the word Tao often has the meaning of way - a space-time sequence. An individual walks a particular way, as does a village and even a country. Several schools of ancient Chinese philosophy used the term "Tao" to indicate their views on the proper conduct of individuals, the nature of human society, and the relationship of humans with the universe as a whole.
In Taoism, the Tao (or "Great Tao") is the grand cosmic harmony. It is thus obvious, as Shen Dao argued, that everyone and everything follows the Great Tao. One may also speak of the Natural (sometimes "Heavenly") Tao. This would roughly resemble any course of history that conforms to the laws of nature - with the same consequence, and the idea that one need not try to follow it - one cannot fail. Both "nature's way" and the "great way" may inspire the typical Taoist detachment from moral or normative doctrines. Since Tao is thought of as the course by which everything comes into being, it seems hard to imagine that one must select from various accounts of its normative content. It may thus be seen as an efficient principle of "emptiness" that reliably underlies the operation of the universe.
Other ways one might term "possible ways" or ways that actually serve as a guide (tao used as a verb). These, however, according to the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) are not invariable. That is, one may choose different guiding Taos, interpret them differently and disagree about their meaning. One may attempt to follow them and fail. These are prescriptive ways, such as the moral way of Confucius or those of Laozi or of Jesus. Nevertheless, the Tao Te Ching says that the nature of all things is beholden to the Tao, suggesting that even these paths will serve this ultimate principle.
Many regard the ancient I Ching (The Classic of Changes) and related cosmogonical views of prehistoric China as an original source of Taoism. Other books have developed Taoism, such as the True Classic of Perfect Emptiness, by Lie Zi; and the Huainanzi compilation. Finally, there are the myriad other books of the Taoist canon, many of which purport to be from Laozi, the Yellow Emperor, or other originators of Taoism.
Laozi reflected on a way for humanity to follow which would put an end to conflicts and strife. This became the original book of Taoism. The scholarly evidence (supported by a cluster of recent archeological finds of versions of the text) suggests that the book took shape over a long period of time in pre-Han China (before the 3rd century BCE) and circulated in many versions and edited collections until it was standardized shortly after the Han Dynasty.
Primitive Taoism is also partly responsible for the important resonance theory, elaborated during Han Dynasty, that underlies many of the cultural productions of traditional China. If a common Tao is at the source of everything, then there must be a homothety between macrocosm and microcosm, a structural commonality between the world, the country, the family, and the individual. The commonality underscores the Five Elements theory: the five directions (including center) correspond to five seasons (including a buffer one) and to five tastes, or the five elements themselves. Because of this resonance between separate domains, an Emperor's familial disorder will result in natural disaster and political troubles. Though this theory has been questioned by Wang Hong, it displays the Chinese traditional reticence to exclusive categories.
[image] As the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi became widely known in China, schools formed based on their teaching. These schools eventually acquired the features of a structured religion and evolved into a religious faith by 440 CE. Laozi became a deity to many Chinese. Around 300 CE various denominations developed with distinct views. Some sought immortality, similar to the Buddhist concept of enlightenment. Others practiced Alchemy and magic, using herbal potions or wearing charms. Polytheistic elements were added, worshipping many gods; some were closely identified with Buddhism, others from Chinese folklore, and still others were gods of nature, previously unknown. Especially popular were the Eight Immortals, celestial entities who were human but gained immortality through belief. In the Tang period from 600 to 900 CE many Buddhist concepts and practices such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, and the celibacy of the clergy were incorporated into Taoism.
Deng Xiaoping eventually restored some religious tolerance beginning in 1982. Subsequently, communist leaders have recognized Taoism as an important traditional religion of China and also as a potential lucrative focus for Tourism, so many of the more scenic temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.
There are scholars who argue that Taoism is still a prevalent belief within China itself, estimating that the true number of Taoists worldwide, once Chinese believers are accounted for, may be over one billion, making it the second largest religion of the world; however, due to the intertwined nature of Chinese traditional religion and other restrictions, a census on the number of adherents in China is not possible.
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People in countries other than China practice the Taoist philosophy in various forms, especially in Vietnam and in Korea. Kouk Sun Do in Korea exemplifies one such variation. The Yao have a written religion based on medieval Chinese Taoism, although in recent years there have been many converts to Christianity and Buddhism. Outside China, Taoists are to be found in Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.
Taoist philosophy has found a large following throughout the world, and several traditional Taoist lineages have set up teaching centers in countries outside China.
Today, some of the vivid intuitions of Laozi and Zhuangzi, especially their focus on accordance with internal and external nature, resonate with modern inclinations towards Personal development and Ecology.
In popular Western and especially New Age parlance, "Taoist" has come to mean generally just being "cool" or "going with the flow". It has also become common to see books and articles titled The Tao of business strategy, marketing, programming, etc. Links between these works and strict Taoism are often quite tenuous; many authors use "Taoism" as an excuse for obfuscatory speech, while many others use "Tao" to mean a way of doing something whether it is in accord with actual Taoist philosophy or not. Some authors writing The Tao of books even contradict what seems to have been the original intentions of Laozi and Zhuangzi. For example, a book on the "Tao of Marketing" would be very hard pressed to actually follow the Tao Te Ching's anti-materialistic mores without making the focus of the product something beyond the product itself.
Another aspect of Taoism, more familiar in China or countries under Chinese cultural influence, includes worship of Laozi and other divinities, magic, alchemy, Qigong, perfection of immortality, and many other practices. This aspect of Taoism encompasses teaching lineages (where teachers pass on texts, rituals and beliefs to select students), temples, and sects. It is often referred to as Taoist religion, or 道教 (Pinyin Dàojiào).
The relationship between Taoist religion and Taoist philosophy is complex. One of the original founders of Taoist religious sects, Zhang Daoling, said he had received revelations from Laozi himself. Most Taoist religious sects hold Laozi to be at least a god, if not the highest divinity. Taoist religious practice often includes beliefs strongly founded on the Tao Te Ching. There are also hints in the Zhuangzi of immortality, a common feature of Taoist religious practice. Further, many Chinese traditional religious practices are considered "Taoist" even when there is little that specifically makes them so.
A clear and definitive distinction between that which is religion and that which is philosophy in Taoism is difficult. Moreover, a clear distinction between ideas and practices originating with Taoism and those from other sources in Chinese culture is also often impossible.