The Sakas are considered to be a branch of Scythians by most scholars. Saka is the usual Persian term, while Scythian is a Greek term. The Sakas lived in what is now Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Iran, Ukraine, and Altai and Siberia in Russia, in the centuries before 300 AD. Some of their neighbours included the Sarmatians, Issedones and Massagetae. Their language is poorly known, but seems to have originally been a member of the Iranian family (though some question whether this applied to all stratas of their society, or only the ruling class at various times). They were known to the Chinese as the Sai (Chinese: 塞, Old Sinitic *sək).
In Akkadian, the Saka were called the Ashkuza and were closely associated with the Gimirri, who were the Cimmerians known to the ancient Greeks.
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The most notable Saka burial to date, whose occupant is referred to as the "Golden Man", was found in Kazakhstan. The silver dish found with the "Golden Man" is inscribed with what appears to be a form of runic writing; however the language and content have not yet been satisfactorily deciphered.
The worldview of Sakas, like that of present-day Kazakhs and Mongols, was that a human is a part of the Universe, Cosmos, Heaven, Sun, mountains, nature. Shamanism and Tengriism are still practiced today, from Kazakhstan to Siberia. The concept of God is related to Cosmic laws and forces. However, modern Kazakhs are Muslim, most modern Mongols are Buddhists, and Siberian Shamanism is not known to be directely connected to Indo-European religion.
It has been further claimed that Saka (or Scythian) animal-stylized art closely resembles Sumerian art, and that the contemporary Kazakh language has about 500 words in common with the Sumerian language. This is one of a number of claims about the Sumerian language not recognized by mainstream scholars.
The Sakas were also one of several tribes that conquered India from the northwest, where they established the rule of the Indo-Scythians. The Saka Era is used by the Indian national calendar, a few other Hindu calendars, and the Cambodian Buddhist calendar-its year zero begins near the vernal equinox of 78. See Kushan Empire article for more complex description of Kushan-Scythian dating. Interestingly, the very name of "Cambodia" has been traced to a branch of Indo-Iranian Saka -- the Kambojas, who in turn evidently took their name from the Persian Cambyses. The modern Khmer people of Cambodia are, of course, non-Indo-Iranian in language.
There has been no strong genetic link discovered between the Kazakhs and peoples of India; however, the marker R1a1 accounts for more than 50% of Altai, Slavic and NW Indian/Pakistani males.
It is likely that by about 600 BC, Central Asia was occupied by a number of ethnic groups, all nomadic equestrians sharing simple cultural traits.
Paul Pezon ardently supports this theory, claiming that the Saka Scythians and the seemingly related Cimmerians were ultimately ancestors to the Celts and Germans, and that the Germans fled the Baltic area when it was flooded by the rising sea level after the Ice age - since the German tribe Cimbri are thought to be descended from a branch of the Cimmerians).
Some researchers have argued that both the Celts and Germans came from an area southeast of the Black Sea, and migrated westward to the coast of Europe, starting with the reign of the Persian king Cyrus the Great, when they declined to help him in his conquest of the Babylonian empire. Herodotus (440 BC) actually mentions a division of Scythians known as "Germanii".
When the Saxons invaded England ca. 400 AD, their chroniclers said they "sent back to Scythia for reinforcements". The implication is that the Saxons considered themselves to be Scythians -- the name having traveled with them, even though they were far away from the region the Greeks had labelled "Scythia". The English are known to be descended from two related tribes, the Angles and the Saxons. The burial customs of the Scythians and Vikings also show similarities, wherefore some have argued a common origin in support of the theory.
About 50% of Slavs and Balts and about 30% of Central Europeans share the same Y chromosome (R1a) with 50% of the people of the Indus Valley.
,, GeneticHeritage.pdf See also: Pashtun, Jat (people)
The Vartika of the Katayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names.
The Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the Yavanas, Gandharas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras etc and addresses them all as the Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha. In another verse, the Epic groups the Shakas and Kambojas and Khashas and addresses them as the tribes from Udichya i.e north division (5/169/20). Also, the Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana locates the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (i.e. Hindukush) (43/12).
A generation later, Bahu's son Sagara managed to recapture Ayodhya after defeating these foreign hordes. Sagara punished them by meting out to them weird punishments. He made the Shakas shave half of their heads, the Kambojas and the Yavanas the totality, the Pahlavas to keep their beards and the Paradas to let their hair go free.
The Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war between Brahmanical king Kalika (supposed to be Pusyamitra Sunga) and Buddhist king Kali (supposed to be Maurya king Brihadratha (187-180 BCE)) and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas etc as a powerful military allies of king Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarians take the orders from their women (Ref: Kalika Purana, III(6), 22-40).
The Balakanda of the Ramayana also groups the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Mlechhas and refers to them as military allies of Sage Vishistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra (55/2-3).
The Udyogaparava of the Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina. The Epic repeatedly applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful.
This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc (See: Mudrarakshas, II) which he utilised to defeat the Greek successors of Alexander the Great and the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and thus establishing his Mauryan Empire in northern India.
This reference apparently alludes to the precarious political scenario following the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its occupation by foreign hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas.
The 10th century Kavyamimamsa of Chander Shekhar (Ch. 17) still lists the Shakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc. together, and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha division.See also
References
Handbuch der Orientalistik, I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958.