Guru

Guru Purnima is the day when the disciple wakes up in his fullness and expresses gratitude. The purpose of the Guru Purnima (or Poornima) celebration is to review the preceding year and see in how much one has progressed in life ,to renew one's determination and to focus on the progress in the spiritual path.

Guru Puja (literally "worship of the guru") is a practice of making offerings to and requesting inspiration from the guru. Vows and commitments made by the disciple or chela, which might have lost their strength ,are renewed.

Guru Bhakti (literally "devotion to the guru") is considered important in many schools.

In the Upanishads, five signs of sat guru (true guru) are mentioned.

In the presence of the Satguru; Knowledge flourishes (Gyana raksha); Sorrow diminishes (Dukha kshaya); Joy wells up without any reason (Sukha aavirbhava); Abundance dawns (Samriddhi); All talents manifest (Sarva samvardhan).

According to the Indologist Georg Feuerstein, the preceptors were traditionally treated with great reverence , in correlation with the perceived identification of the enlightened master with the transcendental Reality . Also , that traditionally, gurus were granted excessive authority and strongly tended to be deified. He writes , probably to counterbalance this, that some Hindu schools began to emphasize that the real teacher is the transcendental Self. ^{[:Guru}}#endnote_Feuerstein1990]}

The Shiva Samhita, a late medieval text on Hatha yoga, enshrines the importance of the guru for liberation and asserts that the disciple is supposed to give all of his or her property and livestock to the guru upon Diksha (initiation). ^{[:Guru}}#endnote_Feuerstein1990]}

The Vishnu Smriti and Manu Smriti regard the Acharya (teacher/guru), along with the mother and the father, as most venerable individuals. The mother and father are the first "guru". The spiritual guru is the second.

The Advaya Taraka Upanishad states that the true teacher is well-versed in the Veda, a devotee of Vishnu, free from envy, knows Yoga and is intent upon it, and always has the nature of yoga. The text continues by stating that he , or she , who is equipped with devotion to the teacher, has knowledge of the Self and who possesses the above mentioned characteristics, may be designated as a guru. ^{[:Guru}}#endnote_Feuerstein1990]}

The Mundak Upanishad says that, in order to realize the supreme godhead, one should surrender one's self before the guru, who knows the secrets of the Vedas.

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad warns against false teachers who may deceive the naive. ^{[:Guru}}#endnote_Feuerstein1990]}

The Kula-Arnava-Tantra states that there are many gurus who may rob the disciple's wealth and few who can remove the disciple's afflictions. ^{[:Guru}}#endnote_Feuerstein1990]}

On the role of the guru, Swami Sivananda asks: "Do you realize now the sacred significance and the supreme importance of the Guru's role in the evolution of man? It was not without reason that the India of the past carefully tended and kept alive the lamp of Guru-Tattva. It is therefore not without reason that India, year after year, age after age, commemorates anew this ancient concept of the Guru, adores it and pays homage to it again and again, and thereby re-affirms its belief and allegiance to it. For, the true Indian knows that the Guru is the only guarantee for the individual to transcend the bondage of sorrow and death, and experience the Consciousness of the Reality."

Some Hindu gurus have warned against false teachers, have recommended the spiritual seeker to test the guru before accepting him, and have outlined criteria on how to distinguish false from genuine ones:

• Swami Vivekananda said that there are many incompetent gurus and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless without desire for money and fame.
• Mirinalini Mata, a direct disciple of Yogananda, said that a true guru should be humble (Self-Realization Fellowship 1978, Cassette No 2402)
• Sathya Sai Baba said in a discourse (Sathya Sai Speaks, vol I, p. 197) that the hunt for rich disciples who can be fleeced has become a Tragicomedy, and said in the booklet Sandeha Nivarini that the seeker should test the guru by assessing whether his words are full of wisdom, and whether he puts into practice what he preaches.

According to the religious scholar Reender Kranenborg (2002), the fact that some people follow false gurus is seen, in India, as due to bad Karma on the part of the follower.

In his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga (1990), Feuerstein wrote that gurus occasionally exploit their followers because only a few gurus enjoy full enlightenment themselves. He further writes that many gurus in traditional Hinduism expect unquestioned obedience and constant service, and possibly request hefty remuneration for initiation.

Continuing the work of the sceptic Sri Lankan professor Abraham Kovoor, the Indian amateur magician Basava Premanand ,(who is a former follower of several gurus) , tours around the villages of India to educate people by debunking gurus, godmen, and fakirs whom he considers frauds or self deceived, especially if they claim to perform paranormal feats, or to possess siddhis, or actively promote belief in miracles. The Ghandian rationalist, physicist, and educationalist H. Narasimhaiah founded The Committee to Investigate Miracles and Other Verifiable Superstitions in the 1970s to investigate the claims of miracles performed by gurus and godmen.

The guru's blessing is the last of the four foundations in Vajrayana Buddhism. In this foundation, the disciple can continue in their experiential path on the way to the true nature of reality. The disciple regards the guru as the embodiment of Buddha, or a Bodhisattva, and he or she shows devotion and great appreciation toward the guru as such.

In the Theravada Buddhist tradition, the teacher is a valued and honoured mentor worthy of great respect and is a source of inspiration on the path to Enlightenment. In the Tibetan tradition, however, the teacher is viewed as the very root of spiritual realization and the basis of the entire path. Without the teacher, it is asserted, there can be no experience or insight. The guru is to be seen as theBuddha. In Tibetan texts, great emphasis is placed upon praising the virtues of the guru. Tantric teachings include generating visualisations of the guru and making offerings praising the guru. The guru becomes known as the Vajra (literally "diamond") guru, the one who is the source of initiation into the tantric deity. The disciple is asked to enter into a series of vows and commitments which ensure the maintenance of the spiritual link , with the understanding that to break this link is a serious downfall.

In tantric Buddhism, a guru is essential for initiation, practice and guidance along the path. The importance of a guru-disciple relationship is demonstrated by ritual empowerments or initiations where the student obtains permission to practice a particular Tantra.

The Dalai Lama, speaking of the importance of the guru, said: "Rely on the teachings to evaluate a guru: Do not have blind faith, but also no blind criticism."

According to the Dalai Lama, the term 'living Buddha' is a translation of the Chinese word 'ho fu'. In Tibetan, the operative word is 'lama' which means 'guru'. A guru is someone who is not necessarily a Buddha but is heavy with knowledge. The term vajra is also used, meaning 'master'.

The guru plays a very special role in Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) as the way itself. The guru is perceived as the "state of enlightenment". The guru is not an individual who initiates a person, but the person's own Buddha-nature reflected in the personality of the guru. In return, the disciple is expected to shows great devotion to his or her guru, who he or she regards as one who possesses the qualities of a Bodhisattva.

See also

• Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava)
• Geluk
• Tilopa

Guru in Sikhism

Sikhism comes from the word Sikh, which means a strong and able Guru disciple. The core beliefs of Sikhism are of belief in one God and in the teachings of the Ten Gurus, enshrined in Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh holy book.

Guru Nanak, the first guru of Sikhism, was opposed to the caste system prevalent in his time in India and he accepted Hindus, Muslims and people from other religions as disciples. His followers referred to him as the Guru (teacher). Before his death he designated a new Guru to be his successor and to lead the Sikh community. This procedure was continued, and the tenth and last Guru, Guru Gobind (AD 1666–1708) initiated the Sikh ceremony in AD 1699.

For Sikhs, the Gurus were not in the Christian sense “Sons of God”. Sikhism says we are all the children of God and by deduction, God is our mother/father.

Guru Nanak in speaking about God, says:

There is but One God, His name is Truth, He is the Creator, He fears none, he is without hate, He never dies, He is beyond the cycle of births and death, He is self illuminated, He is realized by the kindness of the True Guru. He was True in the beginning, He was True when the ages commenced and has ever been True, He is also True now.

On the importance of guru, Nanak says: Let no man in the world live in delusion. Without a Guru none can cross over to the other shore.

The Gurus of Sikhism

In addition to the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib was made the eleventh perpetual guru of Sikhs. Together they make up the Eleven Gurus of Sikhism

• Rishi
• acharyam
• upadhya
• kulapati
• mantravetta

Vaishnava traditions usually categorize gurus as:

• vartma-pradarshaka guru (any person who first shows one the path)
• Shiksha guru
• Diksha guru
• sannyasa guru (who initiates one into sannyasa order)
• caittya guru (God in the heart as Paramatman)

In his book about neo-Hindu movements in the Netherlands, Kranenborg distinguishes four types of gurus in India:

1. the spiritual advisor for higher Caste Hindus who also performs traditional rituals and who is not connected to a temple (thus not a priest);
2. the enlightened master who derives his authority from his experience, such as achieving enlightenment. This type appears in bhakti movements and in Tantra and asks for unquestioning obedience , and can have Western followers. Westerners can even become one, as have , for example Andrew Cohen, and Isaac Shapiro.
3. the Avatar, a guru who considers himself to be an incarnation of God, an instrument of God, a conduit to God, or who is considered as such by his followers, for example Sathya Sai Baba and gurus from the Sant Mat lineage;
4. A "guru" in the form of a book i.e. the Guru Granth Sahib in the Sikh religion.

Succession and lineage (parampara)

Parampara is also known as Guru (teacher) Shishya (disciple) parampara or guru parampara, where the knowledge (in any field) is passed down (undiluted) through the succeeding generations. It is the traditional method of the residential form of education wherein the Shishya remains with his Guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner. The domains may include spiritual, artistic (Kala कला such as Music or Dance) or educational.

The teachings of the Vedas received through guru parampara are known as amnaya.

See also Guru-shishya tradition, Gurukula.

David C. Lane, a professor of sociology , ex-member and critic of Radha Soami Satsang Beas, argues that based on his research of the Radha Soami movement, only few gurus have a flawless well-documented lineage and that there is quite often conflict between different disciples claiming to be the only legitimate successor of their guru.

Guru in a Western culture context

In particular during the 1960s and 1970s many gurus acquired groups of young followers in Western Europe and the USA. According to the American sociologist David G. Bromley this was partially due to the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act (United States) in 1965 which permitted Asian gurus entrance to the USA. According to the Dutch Indologist Albertina Nugteren, the repeal was only one of several factors and a minor one compared with the two most important causes for the surge of all things 'Eastern': the post-war cross-cultural mobility and the general dissatisfaction with established Western values. In contrast to the situation in India, these foreign gurus were unusual, new and alien for European and American societies and led sometimes to opposition against groups. One example was ISKCON/Hare Krishna founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966 that made demands on their followers that some considered strong. According to the professor in Sociology Stephen A. Kent at the University of Alberta and Kranenborg (1974), one of the reasons why in 1970s young people including hippies turned to gurus was because they found that drugs had opened for them the existence of the transcendental or because they wanted to get high without drugs. According to Kent, another reason why this happened so often in the USA then, was because some anti-Vietnam War protesters and political activist became worn out or disillusioned of the possibilities to change society through political means ,and as an alternative turned to religious means.

See also

• conversion to NRMs and cults,

• conversion to Indic religions,

• theories about joining cults.

Gurus in the West

• Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche a lama (Tibetan Buddhist religious teacher)
• Dalai Lama
• Jagadguru Kripaluji Maharaj, the founder of the Jagadguru Kripalu Parishat, which preaches Raganuga Bhakti, a form of selfless devotion and loving service to Krishna and Radha Rani
• Jiddu Krishnamurti groomed to be a world spiritual teacher by the Theosophical Society Adyar but publicly renounced this role in 1929
• Maharishi Mahesh Yogi now lives in the Netherlands
• Meher Baba who had conspicuous followers
• Muktananda
• Paramahansa Yogananda settled in the USA and wrote the book Autobiography of a Yogi
• Prabhupada who founded ISKCON/Hare Krisna in New York, an organization based on the Gaudiya Vaishnavism Sect of Hinduism
• Prem Rawat, known as Guru Maharaj Ji until the 1980s. Note: Maharaji dropped the title "guru" from his name in 1980.
• Bhagwan/Osho/Rajneesh settled temporarily in the USA
• Sathya Sai Baba never went to Europe or the USA but acquired a substantial number of followers there
• Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev founder of Isha Foundation and the Isha Yoga Centre has a strong volunteer force in India, US and Lebanon
• Sri Aurobindo

According to Kranenborg (1984), Jesus fits the Hindu definition and characteristics of a guru.

Assessment and criticism by Western scholars and writers, Indologists, theologians and apostates

• Dr. David C. Lane proposes a checklist consisting of seven points to assess gurus in his book, Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical. One of his points is that spiritual teachers should have high standards of moral conduct and that followers of gurus should interpret the behavior of a spiritual teacher by following Ockham's razor and by using common sense, and , should not naively use mystical explanations unnecessarily to explain immoral behavior. Another point Lane makes is that the bigger the claim a guru makes, such as the claim to be God, the bigger the chance is that the guru is unreliable. Dr. Lane's fifth point is that self-proclaimed gurus are likely to be more unreliable than gurus with a legitimate lineage.
• Highlighting what he sees as the difficulty in understanding the guru from Eastern tradition in Western society, Dr. Georg Feuerstein, a well-known German-American Indologist, and one of the most important Western authorities on Yoga writes in the article Understanding the Guru from his book The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and practice:"The traditional role of the guru, or spiritual teacher, is not widely understood in the West, even by those professing to practice Yoga or some other Eastern tradition entailing discipleship. [...] Spiritual teachers, by their very nature, swim against the stream of conventional values and pursuits. They are not interested in acquiring and accumulating material wealth or in competing in the marketplace, or in pleasing egos. They are not even about morality. Typically, their message is of a radical nature, asking that we live consciously, inspect our motives, transcend our egoic passions, overcome our intellectual blindness, live peacefully with our fellow humans, and, finally, realize the deepest core of human nature, the Spirit. For those wishing to devote their time and energy to the pursuit of conventional life, this kind of message is revolutionary, subversive, and profoundly disturbing." . In his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Yoga (1990), Dr. Feuerstein writes that the importation of yoga to the West has raised questions as to the appropriateness of spiritual discipleship and the legitimacy of spiritual authority.

• A British professor of psychiatry, Anthony Storr, argues in his book, Feet of Clay: A Study of Gurus, that gurus (in the new, additional meaning of the word in the West) share common character traits (e.g. being loners) and that some suffer from a mild form of Schizophrenia. He argues that gurus who are authoritarian, paranoid, eloquent, or who interfere in the private lives of their followers are the ones who are more likely to be unreliable and dangerous. Storr also refers to Eileen Barker's checklist to recognize false gurus. He contends that some so-called gurus claim special spiritual insights based on personal revelation, offering new ways of spiritual development and paths to salvation. Storr's criticism of gurus includes the possible risk that a guru may exploit his or her followers due to the authority that he or she may have over them, though Storr does acknowledge the existence of morally superior teachers who refrain from doing so. He holds the view that the idiosyncratic belief systems that some gurus promote were developed during a period of Psychosis to make sense of their own minds and perceptions, and that these belief systems persist after the psychosis has gone. Storr applies the term "guru" to figures as diverse as Jesus, Muhammad, Buddha, Gurdjieff, Rudolf Steiner, Carl Jung, Sigmund Freud, Jim Jones and David Koresh. The Belgian Indologist Koenraad Elst criticized Storr's book for its avoidance of the term Prophet instead of guru for several people. Elst asserts that this is possibly due to Storr's pro-Western, pro-Christian cultural bias.

• Rob Preece, a psychotherapist and a practicing Buddhist, writes in The Noble Imperfection that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards. He writes that these potential hazards are the result of naiveté amongst Westerners as to the nature of the guru/devotee relationship, as well as a consequence of a lack of understanding on the part of Eastern teachers as to the nature of Western psychology. Preece introduces the notion of Transference to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes: "In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves." In developing this concept, Preece writes that, when we transfer an inner quality onto another person, we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger: "In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the Archetype".

• Some gurus have been perceived by the media and by critical ex-followers to be abusing their status and to be either charlatans, self-deceived, businessmen pretending to be saints, cult leaders, or a combination of these. See also: allegations by critical ex-followers. According to a professor of Religious studies at Dawson College in Quebec, Susan J. Palmer, the word guru has acquired very negative connotations in France.

• The psychiatrist Alexander Deutsch performed a long-term observation of a small cult, called The Family (not to be confused with The Family/Children of God), founded by an American guru called Baba or Jeff in New York in 1972 ,who showed increasingly schizophrenic behavior. Deutsch observed that this man's mostly Jewish followers interpreted the guru's pathological mood swings as expressions of different Hindu deities and interpreted his behavior as holy madness, and his cruel deeds as punishments that they had earned. After the guru dissolved the cult in 1976, his mental condition was confirmed by Jeff's retrospective accounts to an author. Deutsch also visited the ashram of the guru Sathya Sai Baba in India and there noted that a group of young followers interpreted disconfirming events as tests of faith, engineered by the guru or as the guru's divine play, just as Krishna's leelas.

• Jan van der Lans (1933-2002), a professor of the Psychology of religion at the Catholic University of Nijmegen, wrote, in a book commissioned by the Netherlands based Catholic Study Center for Mental Health, about followers of gurus and the potential dangers that exist when personal contact between the guru and the disciple is absent, such as an increased chance of idealization of the guru by the student (myth making and deification), and an increase of the chance of false Mysticism. He further argues that the deification of a guru is a traditional element of Eastern spirituality, but, when detached from the Eastern cultural element and copied by Westerners, the distinction between the person who is the guru and that which he symbolizes can be lost, resulting in the relationship between the guru and disciple degenerating into a boundless, uncritical personality cult.

• In their 1993 book, The Guru Papers, authors Diana Alstadt and Joel Kramer reject the guru-disciple tradition because of what they see as its structural defects. These defects include the authoritarian control of the guru over the disciple, which is in their view increased by the guru's encouragement of surrender to him. Alstadt and Kramer assert that gurus are likely to be hypocrites because, in order to attract and maintain followers, gurus must present themselves as purer than and superior to ordinary people and other gurus.

Other uses of the word 'Guru'

• There is a 1990s alternative rapper named Guru (Gifted Unlimited Rhymes Universal).
• There is also a 2002 movie titled The Guru.

Notable scandals and controversies

• The lifestyle of Osho/Bhagwan/Rajneesh with his 93 Rolls Royces at his disposal (though as a gift from his followers), a bioterrorist attack at The Dalles, Oregon by some of his followers, and his unusual teachings that contradicted both traditional morality and Hindu norms, the group therapy sessions with little restraints, and the liberal sexual freedom that he promoted.

• The Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway by Aum Shinrikyo founded by the guru Shoko Asahara in Japan

• Accusations of Sexual abuse and false miracles performed by Sathya Sai Baba that resulted in a front page article in the magazine India Today, questions in the British parliament and European Parliament, critical TV documentaries produced by the BBC and Danish Radio that were aired in the United Kingdom, Canada, on BBC World, in Denmark and in Australia.

See also

• Charismatic authority
• Contemporary Hindu movements
• Eklavya
• Gurbani
• Guru-shishya tradition
• List of people considered to be avatars
• Satguru

References

•   Bromley, David G., Ph.D. & Anson Shupe, Ph.D., Public Reaction against New Religious Movements article that appeared in Cults and new religious movements: a report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association, edited by Marc Galanter, M.D., (1989) ISBN 0-89042-212-5
•   Deutsch, Alexander M.D. Observations on a sidewalk ashram Archive Gen. Psychiatry 32 (1975) 2, 166-175
•   Deutsch, Alexander M.D. Tenacity of Attachment to a cult leader: a psychiatric perspective American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980) 12, 1569-1573.
•   Deutsch, Alexander M.D. Psychological perspectives on cult leadership, an article that appeared in the book edited by Marc Galanter M.D. (1989) Cults and new religious movements: a report of the committee on psychiatry and religion of the American Psychiatric Association ISBN 0-89042-212-5
•  Feuerstein, Georg Dr. Encyclopedic dictionary of yoga Published by Paragon House 1st ed edition (1990) ISBN 155778244X
• Feuerstein, Georg Dr. The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice, Shambhala Publications, released on (2003) ISBN 1570629285
• Kent, Stephen A. Dr. From slogans to mantras: social protest and Religious conversion in the late Vietnam War era Syracuse University press ISBN 0-8156-2923-0 (2001)
• Kramer, Joel, and Diana Alstad The guru papers: masks of authoritarian power (1993) ISBN 1-883319-00-5
• Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Zelfverwerkelijking: oosterse religies binnen een westerse subkultuur (En: Self-realization: eastern religions in a Western Sub-culture, published by Kampen Kok (1974)
• Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Een nieuw licht op de kerk? Bijdragen van nieuwe religieuze bewegingen voor de kerk van vandaag (En: A new perspective on the church? Contributions of new religious movements for today's church), the Hague Boekencentrum (1984) ISBN 9023908090
• Kranenborg, Reender (Dutch language) Neohindoeďstische bewegingen in Nederland : een encyclopedisch overzicht (En: Neo-Hindu movements in the Nehterlands, published by Kampen Kok cop. (2002) ISBN 9043504939
• Lane, David C., Exposing Cults: When the Skeptical Mind Confronts the Mystical (1984)
• Lans, Jan van der Dr. (Dutch language) Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland, written upon request for the KSGV published by Ambo, Baarn, 1981 ISBN 9026305214
• Nugteren, Albertina (Tineke) Dr. (Associate professor in the phenomenology and history of Indian religions at the faculty of theology at the university of Tilburg)Tantric Influences in Western Esotericism, article that appeared at a 1997 CESNUR conference and that was published in the book New Religions in a Postmodern World edited by Mikael Rothstein and Reender Kranenborg RENNER Studies in New religions Aarhus University press, (2003) ISBN 8772887486
• Palmer, Susan, article in the book NRMs in the 21st Century: legal, political, and social challenges in global perspective edited by Phillip Charles Lucas and Thomas Robbins, (2004) ISBN 0145965772
• Storr, Anthony Dr. Feet of clay: a study of gurus 1996 ISBN 0684834952
• Sathya Sai Baba Sandeha Nivarini: Clearance of Spiritual Doubts available online published by Sri Sathya Sai Books and Publications Trust (undated) ISBN 81-7208-010-7
• Preece, Rob, "The teacher-student relationship" in The Noble Imperfection: The challenge of individuation in Buddhist life, Mudras Publications
• Swami Vivekananda Karma-yoga and Bhakti-yoga (1937)

Bibliography

• Arjun Dev, Guru, Guru Granth Sahib, Amritsar-1604 AD., Rag Bhairo
• Aurobindo, Sri, The Foundation of Indian Culture, Pondicherry, 1959
• Brown, Mick The Spiritual Tourist Bloomsbury publishing, 1998 ISBN 1-58234-034-X
• Garden, Mary rising 03.htm The Serpent Rising: a journey of spiritual seduction - 2003 ISBN 1-8770590-50-1
• Gupta, Dr. Hari Ram. A Life-Sketch of Guru Nanak in Guru Nanak, His Life, Time and Teachings, Edited by Gurmukh Nihal Singh, New Delhi, 1981
• Gurdev Singh, Justice, Perspectives on the Sikh Tradition. Patiala-1986
• Holtje, D. (1995). From Light to Sound: The Spiritual Progression. Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949006
• Isliwari Prasad, Dr. The Mughal Empire, Allahabad-1974
• Jain, Nirmal Kumar, Sikh Religion and Philosophy. New Delhi- 1979
• Kapur Singh, Parasarprasna or The Baisakhi of Guru Gobind Singh (An Exposition of Sikhism), Jalandhar-1959
• Kovoor, Abraham Dr. Begone Godmen published by Shri Aswin J. Shah Jaico Publishing House, Bombay - 1976
• Majumdar, Dr R.C., The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. VI, Bombay-1960
• Mcleod W.H. (ed.). The B40 Janam Sakhi, Guru Nank Dev University, Amritsar, 1980
• Mehta, Gita Karma Cola: Marketing the Mystic East Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, first published in 1979 ISBN 0679754334
• Sister Nivedita, The Master as I Saw Him, Kolkata: Udbodhan Office, 1993.
• Olsen, G. (1999). MasterPath: The Divine Science of Light and Sound, (Vol. 1). Temecula, CA: MasterPath, Inc. ISBN 1885949014
• Padoux, André The Tantric Guru, in: Tantra in Practice, Ed by David Gordon White, MLBD, New Delhi
• Singh, K. (1999). Naam or Word. Blaine, WA: Ruhani Satsang Books. ISBN 0942735943
• Singh, Jaideva, (Ed.), Ďiva Sútras, The Yoga of Supreme Identity, MLBD, Delhi, 1979
• Swami Tejasananda, A Short Life of Vivekananda, Kolkata: Advaita Ashram Publication, 1999.

External links

Buddhism

• Enlightenment: Buddhism Vis-ŕ-Vis Hinduism
• Interview with the Dalai Lama

Hinduism

• BAPS Swaminarayan Sampraday
• Gurus and Saints in Hinduism
• Who is a Guru?
• The Ten Great Mystic Masters of India
• Shri Krishna Bhajanamrta
• Guru Sri Sai Baba

• Understanding the Guru by Dr. Georg Feuerstein, author of The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and Practice. (2000)
• Guruism - a Hindu countermission by Johannes Aagaard of the Denmark based Dialog Center, an organization belonging to the Christian countercult movement
• Digital Baba 3-minute video by David C. Lane showing in the following order Maharaji, Satchitananda, Muktananda, Father Yod, Elizabeth Clare Prophet, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Sathya Sai Baba, and Yogi Bhajan
• "Ego Death Is Not A Game", an excerpt from Andrew Cohen's book In Defense of the Guru Principle.
• Why The Cynicism About Indian Gurus? from Rediff on the net India, March 30 2001 (VNN) — article by Francois Gautier

Sites to assess gurus

• Exposing cults: when the skeptical mind confronts the mystical Excerpts on assessing the authenticity of a guru from a book by Dr. David C. Lane, Garland Publishing, Inc. (1994)
• Sarlo' Guru Rating Service Ratings of hundreds of gurus by Sarlo. Sarlo is a follower of the guru Osho/Rajneesh/Bhagwan and also has a corresponding Yahoo! group.
• The False Guru Test Checklist of 25 points

Critical sites

• MYTH OF THE TOTALLY ENLIGHTENED GURU The Myth of the Totally Enlightened Guru article by John Horgan, requires sign-up
• How to Become a Cult Guru or, You Too Can Induce Mass Suicide practical tips for charlatans and con men by Phil Milstein. Satirical website.
• Lotus-feet of Clay A Reluctant Mystic Looks At Spiritual Movements by John Wren-Lewis
• About Sai Baba and other self-proclaimed Godmen webpage of the Indian Skeptic about gurus and godmen
• Prabir Ghosh Gurubusters head of the Science and Rationalists’ Association of India
• Personal disempowerment in worshipping gurus: exemplified by the Sathya Sai Baba cult long essay in 8 parts by the critical former follower Robert Priddy