Ali Ali Andrew McNaughton Category="598 births"Category="661 deaths"Category="Accuracy disputes"Category="Caliphs"Category="Muslims"Category="NPOV disputes"Category="Shia Imams"The factual accuracy of this article is disputed

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Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي بن أبي طالب) (ca. 599 - January 661 CE) was an early Islamic leader. He is seen by the Sunni Muslims as the fourth and last of the Khulafā-i-Rāshidūn (rightly guided caliphs). Shi'a Muslims see him as the first Imam and first rightful Caliph. He was Muhammad's cousin, and, after marrying Fatima, his son-in-law as well.

Birth

Ali was born in Mecca, in the Hejaz region of northern Arabia, sometime around 599 CE (the year is an approximation only).

Some medieval Muslim traditions relate that he was born inside the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam, although this claim is treated skeptically by some. Ali was given an auspicious name, derived from one of 99 Names of God, Al Ali (The Exalted).

Early life

Ali's father, Abu Talib, was a member of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather, Abu Talib took Muhammad into his house. Ali and Muhammad were thus cousins raised as brothers, with Ali in the role of a younger brother, looking up to Muhammad and ready to follow his lead. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, a claim that Islamic sources indicate was initially greeted with derision, Ali was one of the first to believe him and profess Islam. Other sources, including his own Nahj al Balagha (khutbahs 187 and 127), consider him to be the first to convert. (p133) (p153)

Ali stood firm in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's flight to Yathrib, or Medina, according to Islamic sources, Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an Assassination plot, so that his cousin could flee in safety. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping.

Ali in Medina

The small community of Muslim immigrants in Medina, the Muhajirun, were at first extremely poor. They had no land, no houses, and lived on the charity of the Medinans who had converted to Islam (the Ansar). They hired themselves out for labor. Ali shared in all the labor and hardships of the community.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Banu Umayyed champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. He was publicly praised by Muhammad. After this, he was emboldened to ask for the hand of Fatima Zahra, Muhammad's daughter by Khadija, in marriage. Fatima and Muhammad consented, and the marriage was solemnized two months after the battle .

Ali was also prominent on the battlefield of Uhud. He is said to have received seventeen wounds in the battle.

In 9 A.H. (630 CE), Muhammad prepared to lead an expedition against Syria. This was the well-known expedition of Tabuk. He did not want to leave Medina, the capital city, unguarded, and decided to leave Ali behind as his deputy. Ali asked if he was going to be left behind with the women and children . Muhammad is reputed to have said:

"Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Aaron to Moses? But there will be no prophet after me."

For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his cousin's service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali joined all of Muhammad's battles and expeditions. As Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his lieutenants, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.

The death of Muhammad (632 CE)

Muhammad had been ailing for some time, but seemed to have recovered somewhat. He left his house to take part in prayers at the Mosque, then returned to his quarters and died.

Ali had a strong claim to the leadership, both as one of Muhammad's closest assistants and as his cousin and son-in-law. But he was passed over for the leadership (see Saqifah). At first he refused to swear fealty to Abu Bakr, another prominent Muslim and Muhammad's father-in-law. In this he was followed by a significant portion of Medina's Muslim community, including the Banu Hashims. They were known as the Rafidi, or "Refusers", and later as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali.

This is an extremely contentious issue, covered in detail in the Succession to Muhammad article. Muslims ultimately split into sects based on their attitudes towards this issue. The Shi'a believe that Muhammad, in accordance with God's command, designated Ali to succeed him, and that Ali was a victim of worldly intrigue; the Sunni believe that the community made a wise choice in uniting behind Abu Bakr.

Sunni and Shi'a also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them.

Inheritance

Ali and Fatima, as well as Muhammad's widows, had an additional cause for disaffection with Abu Bakr. Muhammad had acquired various lands and properties in the last years of his life. Those he left behind expected that this property would come to them, according to the inheritance laws proclaimed by Muhammad himself. However, Abu Bakr claimed that he had heard Muhammad say that prophets do not leave an inheritance . Abu Bakr argued that the property had been held by the Prophet in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state -- despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Abu Bakr gave state pensions to Muhammad's widows, but Muhammad's blood relatives, Ali, Fatimah and Ibn Abbas, did not receive even that much.

After Fatima's death, Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument. The caliphs who followed Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, also refused to return the various properties, whether to Ali or to Muhammad's widows. Shi'a Muslims regard this as yet another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers.

Succession to the caliphate

In 656 CE, the third caliph Uthman, was murdered in his own house, in Medina, by rebellious Muslim soldiers. Medina, now a large city and the capital of an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia, fell into chaos. In the crisis, some Muslims turned to Ali, who had been for years a faithful and steady lieutenant of Muhammad and his successors, and urged him to seek the caliphate. Ali at first refused. He is said to have been horrified by the assassination of Uthman, and did not wish to appear to be profiting from the situation. But his supporters persevered, and Ali finally allowed himself to be proclaimed caliph.

Some opponents at the time claimed that he had connived at the murder of Uthman, or at the very least been negligent in seeking the murderers. However, most current and historical opinion absolves him of any blame. Besides his extremely high status in Shi'a Islam, he is also revered by Sunnis as the last of the truly exemplary successors of Muhammad.

For a fuller discussion of this and succeeding events, see First Islamic civil war.

Caliphate

Almost the first act of his caliphate was to put down a rebellion led by Talha and az-Zubayr (two eminent companions of Muhammad), who were urged on by Aisha, Muhammad's widow. In the view of Shi'as, she was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); Talha was killed, Zubayr fled and killed later, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was given a pension.

Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with companions of the Prophet and trusted aides such as Malik ibn Ashter and Salman the Persian)). Ali then transfered his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.

Mu'awiyah raised an army and marched against Ali, demanding vengeance for the death of Uthman. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 CE in the Battle of Siffin, near the Euphrates; the battle seemed to be turning in favor of Ali, Malik ibn Ashter being very close to Muawiyas camp, when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood."

At this point, the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Ali and his followers are said to have disagreed over the choice of advocate for Ali. Ali wanted Malik ibn Ashter or Ibn Abbas; his followers are said to have objected. Finally, Abu Musa al Asha'ri was chosen as Ali's advocate. Amr ibn al-As, a veteran diplomat, was chosen to act for Mu'awiyah. It is claimed that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be to the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt to Mu'awiya's forces.

Death

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According to tradition, three Muslim zealots (purists later termed Kharijites) had agreed to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The assassins sent against Mu'awiyan and `Amr failed; the only assassin who succeeded was the one who attacked Ali.

Ali suffered a mortal head wound the 19th of Ramadan while he was performing morning prayers. The sword that wounded him is said to have been poisoned.

Before Ali died, when offered milk, he is said to have asked if his assasin, Abdur Rahman bin Muljam al Sarimi, had been offered milk as well. Ali further decreed that if he was not to survive, then Bin Muljam should be killed with no more than one stroke, as he had only struck Ali once.

Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan (three days after he was stabbbed) in Kufa in 661 CE.

A splendid mosque called Mashad Ali was afterwards erected near the city at Najaf, the place of his burial (although some believe he is buried at Mazar-e-Sharif in Afghanistan).

Descendants

Main article: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children. He had two sons by Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Hasan is said to have refrained from publicly claiming the caliphate, so as to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Mu'awiyah I thus became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs. Hassan is, however, revered by most Shi'a as the second Imam; his brother Hussein is reckoned as the third, except by the Shi'a Ismaili, who consider him the second Imam.

Ali's descendants by Fatima are known as sharifs, sayyeds, or sayyids. These are Honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayyed/sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendents, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.

Many Muslim notables are descendents of Muhammad. The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from the Prophet through Ali and Fatima. There are also many humbler sayyeds whose only distinction may be the title in front of their name, or the right to wear a black turban (a sign of Alid descent in some communities).

Legacy

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Ali is greatly respected by most Muslims (the Ibadi might be the only dissenters). The Shi'a in particular venerate him as second only to the Prophet. They celebrate the anniversaries of his martyrdom and birth. The Shi'a version of the confession of faith (shahada) also includes an explicit reference to Ali. (This can be spoken during the call to prayer, but it is not obligatory).

Many Westerners have also found Ali an attractive figure. One contemporary academic, Wilferd Madelung, says:

"In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vicegerents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies."
(The succession to Muhammad: a study of the early caliphate, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 309-310)

In the eyes of the later Muslims he was remarkable for learning and wisdom, and there are extant collections of Proverbs and verses which bear his name: the Sentences of Ali. The most famous collection of Ali's speeches and letters is the Nahj al-Balāgha meaning "The Peak of Eloquence". A few famous quotes from his works:

Source: Nahj al-Balāgha (The Peak of Eloquence)

Shia view

''See main article: Shia view on Ali ibn Abi Talib

Shia regard him with great respect and view his as Muhammads choosen successor, designated by God. They believe that he alone was born inside the Kaaba, that he never worshipped idols, and that his character was perfect and unblemished.

Preceded by:
Uthman		 Sunni Caliph
656-661		Succeeded by:<br.> Mu'awiyah I
Preceded by:
Muhammad		 Shia Imam
632-661		Succeeded by:<br.> Hasan ibn Ali

See also

External links